The Special Education for the Visually Impaired

Special education has come a long way since the room down the hall with the crayon books and easy work. There was a time that special education students were placed together in a classroom, given easy work to do that would not challenge them and provided separate recesses and lunch periods so that they would not mingle with the regular education students. It was a stigma that nobody wanted for their child but it wasn't until the mid-1960's that it began to change. Beginning with Brown vs the school board lawsuit, stemming from a Black student who wanted to attend a predominately white school, the life of a special education student has transformed significantly. Today, special education students are protected from discrimination and segregation by federal and state laws. Students with special learning needs are educated in the least restrictive environment and school systems are ordered to accommodate their special needs so that the playing field will be level for their educational journey. Blind students are classified special education by the very nature of their disability. They are classified as such so that the federal education statutes with regards to special education can protect them from being segregated or shunned by the regular education system. Blind students have their inability to see in common, however, outside of that they are as individual and diverse as their sighted peers. There are federal guidelines in place regarding the education and interventions that pertain to blind students however. A student who is blind can present challenges when it comes to behavioral interventions because some of the tried and true methods are not applicable when it comes to a blind student. Making a student write an essay, write sentences or run laps is not feasible when the student needing the intervention is blind. While many behavioral interventions that apply to sighted students will in fact work with blind students it is important to have alternative plans in place for the behavior intervention of those who cannot see. When the Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 was passed, educators, parents and students began to hammer out plans and pathways to the fair treatment and education of those who had special needs. The students who were blind had previously been sent off to schools for the blind, where they only associated with other blind students, worked with blind geared materials and learned that they were blind in a sighted world. Today, blind students who want to attend regular public schools are not only encouraged to do so they are given the right by federal law to do so, and the school must take whatever steps are needed to allow that education(Anderson, 2004). The 1997 Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the resulting final federal regulations published in 1999 describe related services as an essential component of a free, appropriate public education (FAPE) for many students with disabilities(Anderson, 2004). † Those related services include everything from transportation to counseling services that will assist the special education student in their quest to receive a public education with their peers. Every special education student, including those who are blind is provided with an IEP (Individualized Education Plan). This plan outlines the student's educational needs, the way those needs will be met and what accommodations will be provided by the school system in providing that education(Zabriskie, 2003). While the federal law protects all special education students there are areas of interest that are specifically geared to the education of blind students(Kozub, 2006). As part and parcel of an blind student's IEP it is important to consider the disability and remember its limitations when planning the student's curriculum, extra curricular activities and physical education abilities. Because a blind student is often at a disadvantage when it comes to physical activity in both during the routine school curriculum and the aspects of physical education the IEP team must consider alternatives to include these elements in the school day. In addition the IEP team must consider appropriate behavior interventions for the blind student that acts out due to frustration about not being able to participate as fully as their sighted peers. This frustration may be from the child's anger at his or her limitations or may be founded in messages being sent to that student by well meaning parents who are concerned about their child's physical development as well as educational development. â€Å"The need for heightened levels of fitness in order to navigate barriers found in both home and community settings is important for children and adults with visual impairments. This is a critical mobility issue for children given the need for independence in daily living activities that increases with age and becomes a necessity during adulthood. In addition, issues of mobility within the larger community are a concern later in adulthood if individuals who lack vision rely on public transportation (which may or may not be accessible depending on fitness levels needed to independently reach bus stops). In all, it is imperative that adequate levels of physical activity are encouraged in children and adolescents with visual impairments to facilitate independence into adulthood. The following study is an initial investigation using a family systems framework of activity levels in a select group of children and adolescents with visual impairments(Kozub, 2006). † These and other concerns raise a need for behavioral interventions that are specifically geared to meet the needs of blind students(Robinson, 2001). â€Å"School success may be minimal for students who have difficulties building social relationships and ultimately fail at developing social competence. As a result, social skills training is often provided to increase pro-social interaction. Despite evidence of the effectiveness of teaching appropriate social functioning, there is concern about generalization and maintenance of learned skills(Gilles, 2003). † Blind students are at a specific disadvantage in the regular classroom setting. They are unable to determine when the classroom is noisy when it is appropriate to speak out, when it is appropriate to remain quiet and how to gain the teacher's attention by finding her by sight then moving toward her(Bricker, 2004). It is situations such as these that create a problem when it comes to behavior for the blind student. Not only are inappropriate behaviors a risk when a student is frustrated by being blind, but there are every day behaviors that must be addressed for the blind student and the regular education student to blend into a classroom and create a positive and cohesive learning environment. A student who cannot see where the teacher is to gain his or her attention will often times yell out or shout out the teacher's name. This can not only be disruptive to the classroom from a educational standpoint, but it can also provide a foundation for mimic behavior from the sighted students(Prochaska, 2002). A classroom with 15-23 students all shouting out names of the teacher or others that are needed will quickly become an impossible learning environment. It is important to develop a behavioral intervention for such situations and implement that intervention with the blind student(Bricker, 2004). One intervention would be to provide the blind student with a bell, with which he could ring it once and then patiently wait for the teacher to either arrive at the desk or verbally let the student know he or she will be there momentarily. A blind student may become loud and disruptive when frustrated or angry. It is important for teachers to understand that the frustration may not be with any one person in particular but may in fact be about not being sighted the way the other students in the classroom are. It is important o have appropriate behavior interventions in place from the beginning so that the students who are blind can depend on the consistent response to certain behaviors. When a student acts out and become verbally loud and disruptive it can be disruptive for the entire classroom. Whereas a sighted student can be told to go to the hall or go to the principal the sending of a blind student is more complicated as they will require an aide to accompany them. If less drastic attempts to reduce the undesired behavior are not successful then an aide should be appointed to escort the student from the classroom, however, there should be mandated approaches built into the student's IEP for behavioral interventions before that point arrives. One step that can be taken in behavior intervention with a blind student is to have the student learn how to self direct the anger. If he or she is feeling frustrated it is important that the student have a place to vent that frustration so that it does not come out in inappropriate behaviors in the classroom. Allowing that student to be excused to talk to the guidance counselor about the current frustration is one behavior intervention that will allow the student to address the frustration while at the same time preserving the integrity of the classroom setting and the lessons being taught to the remaining students. Another approach to redirecting undesired behavior will be touch and sound. A blind student cannot read social cues from other students and teachers by the look on their face. It is important to help the student who is blind find ways to read social cues using the other senses. Teachers should instruct the seeing students in ways to use hearing and touch to convey cues to the students who are blind. In addition the students that are blind should be guided in listening to voice cues and other sounds that can clue them to the social attitudes and feelings of those around them. It is important that blind student intervention programs provide clear cut guidelines in helping the students redirect themselves and their behavior to more acceptable avenues. It is important for teachers and students to recognize the very real limitations that a blind student must face on a daily basis. The student who is educated in a regular education classroom is subjected to a well rounded experience, while at the same time must face frustrations that he or she would not have to deal with in a school for the blind. It is important that behavior interventions for the blind student take into consideration the disability and how that disability impacts the student not only from an educational standpoint, but also from a social and emotional standpoint as well. Behavior interventions should include guidance for future behaviors that will provide a foundation for the student to build on successful encounters with each passing year. The federal government mandates that accommodations be put in place but it is up to the individual school to design the accommodations that fit the individual blind student. Blind students are as diversified as sighted students and as such must have behavioral intervention plans in place that address their individual needs.

Public Private Partnership in the Philippines Essay

Methodology The researcher used the historical research method that provided information on the value of Public-Private Partnership in Philippine Infrastructure Construction. The data provides an overview on how valuable, whether it be for the benefit or detriment of the country, PPP projects are in the socio-economic paradigm. The gathered data were from relevant books, research papers, government data, and thru papers released by relevant parties. What is Public–Private Partnership? Public–private partnership (PPP) describes a government service or private business venture which is funded and operated through a partnership of government and one or more private sector companies. These schemes are sometimes referred to as PPP, P3 or P3. 1 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership One of the possible reasons why PPP is the format as to how the Philippine government is conducting most of its high budgeted infrastructure projects is clearly stated by Ferreira and Khatami â€Å"The private sector is playing an increasingly crucial role in the financing and provision of services that were traditionally the domain of the public sector. One of the key reasons is that governments are unable to cope with the ever-increasing demands on their budgets. Most infrastructure expenditures in developing countries have been funded directly from fiscal budgets but several factors such as macroeconomic instability and growing investment requirements have shown that public financing is volatile and, in many countries, rarely meet crucial infrastructure expenditure requirements in a timely and adequate manner.† PPP involves a contract between a public sector authority and a private party, in which the private party provides a public service or project and assumes substantial financial, technical and operational risk in the project. In some types of PPP, the cost of using the service is borne exclusively by the users of the service and not by the taxpayer. In other types (notably the private finance initiative), capital investment is made by the private sector on the strength of a contract with government to provide agreed services and the cost of providing the service is borne wholly or in part by the government. Government contributions to a PPP may also be in kind (notably the transfer of existing assets). In projects that are aimed at creating public goods like in the infrastructure sector, the government may provide a capital subsidy in the form of a one-time grant, so as to make it more attractive to the private investors. In some other cases, the government may support the project by providing revenue subsidies, including tax breaks or by providing guaranteed annual revenues for a fixed period. 2 2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership 2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership PPP in the Philippines The Philippines has a long history of public-private partnership (PPP) initiatives, which serve as a rich basis for future investments. As of now it is a priority of the Benigno Aquino III Administration probably due to its perceived socio economic benefits not only in the usual infrastructure projects like roads, expressways, bridges, transportation terminals etc., it is also going after sectors like information and communications, healthcare, etc. One of the forefront departments involved in Infrastructure development and PPPs is the Department of Public Works and Highways. As Infrastructures are means for our country to regain and sustain high economic growth, improve the social living standards of the people and remove the bottlenecks to international commerce and investment. Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is seen as â€Å"approach to invest resources for adequate road infrastructure. The Government has fewer resources to invest on Expressways. DPWH will undertake the reforms needed to create a more conducive environment for private business and help generate many more bankable projects.3† DPWH PROJECTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION IN 2011 1. NAIA Expressway (Phase II) 2. NLEx-SLEx Link Expressway (Unsolicited Proposal) 3. 3 Department of Public Works and Highways, PPP Projects 3 Department of Public Works and Highways, PPP Projects Daang Hari – SLEx Link | There were 10 PPPs announced for bidding in 2010, 4 were airport projects. The PPPs included: * the Cavite-Laguna Expressway project, * NAIA Expressway II, * LRT 2 East Extension project’ * Privatization of LRT-1 O&M, * Privatization of MRT-3 O&M, * LRT 1 Cavite Extension project, * Bohol Airport, * Puerto Princesa Airport, * New Legaspi (Daraga) airport, and * Privatization of O&M of Laguindingan airport. But some of these projects were shelved because the government wanted to be prudent about the structure and rules under which these would be bid out to private investors. Feasibility studies also took a lot of time. 4 4 Why the Initial 10 PPP’s were designed to fail by AYA LOWE 4 Why the Initial 10 PPP’s were designed to fail by AYA LOWE Rene Santiago, a transportation consultant said that opportunity losses due to delays in the PPPs are mounting. For the LRT-1 Cavite extension alone, he estimated the loss at P80 billion in the last 10 years. Santiago also estimated the losses for 2011 to 2013 to total P25 billion in economic costs. The value of the economic benefit loss of the LRT-2 east extension, which would not be completed until 2016, according to Santiago, is already P5.4 billion, more than half the cost of the project itself, which is P9 billion. According to Santiago, Manila was first among ASEAN countries to set up an urban railway — the LRT-1 built in the 1980s. â€Å"Many of ASEAN countries have now overtaken Manila,† he said, however.â€Å" From now until 2020, expect the Philippines to lag behind other countries in terms of railway projects,† he said. Based on the researched data Public Private partnership for infrastructures benefits are as follows: * It could increase and give greater infrastructure solutions due to private companies having more resources for research and development and use of innovative technology. * It will offer faster project completion and reduced delays because it skips most of the government red tape present in normal construction and funding is internal to the private sector so there are no projected delays due to budget release. * Its return of investment (ROI) is greater when compare to traditional methods, due to innovative design and financing approaches because of the experience of the private sector in marketing. * Risks are weighted from initial conceptual stages to determine the feasibility of a certain project * The operational and project execution risk is transferred totally to the private sector, leaving the public component on a win-win situation * It is a concept where early completion of the infrastructure is expected under expected budget, reducing the claims and change order process due to it being similar to a developers scenario. * It allows government funds to be re-directed to other important socio-economic areas because funding of projects are done by the private sector. * Reduces government budget and budget deficits, because the government is virtually getting an infrastructure for free. * Public Private partnership allows a reduce tax payment from users similar to the subsidies of the government in LRT, MRT. * Allows the government to direct the expected function of the project in accordance to their own interests But not everything is good about PPP, listed are some of the determined drawbacks: * PPPs have risks involved, and the government will the pay the price to transfer those risks to the private sector, risks like bankruptcy, possible failure of the project during operation. * Certain situations can affect the purity of the process due to specialized areas being improved, reducing the number of contractors available to perform the requested projects wherein sometimes monopoly of contracts happen. * Profits of the projects can vary depending on the assumed risk, competitive level, complexity and volume of the project being performed * Government representative must be highly specialized personnel and contracting experts mostly people from concerned agencies like DOT and DPWH have to have these kind highly trained personnel. CONCLUSION Based on the data gathered the proponent of the study has come to the following conclusion, the benefits of Public Private Partnership further outweighs its detriments as some of the drawbacks can be easily averted through proper project planning and control and preparation. For PPP to be successful, the government and the private sectors involved must do it in with careful urgency. The Philippines is a developing country as such progress and infrastructures needed to elevate our status would be beneficial if achieved in the shortest amount of time as possible, but these projects, if without ample considerations, may initially look promising but in the end may cause a lot of problems, and instead of helping become one of those elements that keep slowing the country down.

The Impact of the Internet on Fashion Journalism Essay

The Impact of the Internet on Fashion Journalism - Essay Example The paper "The Impact of the Internet on Fashion Journalism" discovers the influence of the internet on the fashion journalism. The writings that can be found through the internet have turned the fashion world into a more accessible and more clearly interpreted field of personal expression. The history of fashion journalism began in the middle of the 19th century when the income of the middle class became distinctly higher and disposable income allowed for more attention to fashion trend issues beyond the practicality of garments. Since that time, however, controversy has been a constant companion to the fashion industry. The growth of the internet has now created a new phase in the creation of fashion commentary. The identity of the fashion industry has shifted with the instantaneous creation of communications about the events in fashion that happen around the world. Adding a new dimension to this level of communication is that of the fashion bloggers who report from a non-financial ly founded principle who can comment without bias on the trends that come out of the fashion industry. McRobbie quotes Bourdieu in saying that it is implied that â€Å"if it can be shown that there is really nothing special about fashion, and that more or less anybody can do it, then it ceases to occupy that special, sacred place in the public’s estimation, and thus in a sense it ceases to exist, as it is this system of belief which creates the thing†. The existence of a thriving fashion industry is balanced upon.

Defining concept of design thinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Defining concept of design thinking - Essay Example Design thinking is usually incorporated often into the innovation process as well as organisation. Design thinking is the art of coming up with creative and practical solutions to on-going or current problems with an aim and hope of a better future result. As such, design thinking can simply be taken to be a type of thinking that is solely focused on finding a solution (solution focussed thinking). Instead of just focusing on how to solve a specific current problem, design thinking majorly aims at finding the best future solution. As such, the concept commences with a goal. By taking into consideration both the future and present conditions and the problem parameters, design thinking makes it possible for alternative solutions to be explored and evaluated simultaneously. Therefore, unlike design thinking, the scientific methods only commence with definitions of the problem parameters on the way of finding a solution to the problem. It does not explore alternatives or possess the futu re dimension in its process. Thus design thinking looks at both ambiguous and known aspects of the problem to figure out the open available alternatives and hidden parameters which will lead to the achievement of the goal. Since the process of design thinking is commonly iterative, there exists a lot of starting points. For example, initial problem redefinition or other intermediate solutions. Design thinking is a multidisciplinary process covering fields such as engineering, law, psychology, marketing and economics among others. For example, in engineering, education is geared towards the creation of engineers who can think and create designs (Pourdehnead, et.al, 2011). However, design thinking is a complex subject and one of the approaches used in teaching engineers design is the project-based learning approach (Dym, et.al, 2005). Engineering design

Responses Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Responses - Assignment Example This makes the essay credible and the information reliable to be used for further research. Furthermore, citing of the sources makes the essay to be reliable. One of the major weaknesses of the essay is that it has generalized the issue. It did not go into details on the problems being discussed. The essay could have been sharper if the student used specific examples of errors that have occurred in the medical setting. The student could have cited books and journals to support the main ideas. A lot of research has been conducted concerning this topic. Therefore, there is an array of credible sources which could have been used to complete the essay. This could have given the author more information on the issue. What I learnt from this paper is that there are a lot of errors that are not being reported because many of the healthcare officials fear losing their jobs. Therefore, more training is required in order to equip the medical personnel with skills to avoid these errors. One of the strength of this essay is the use of statistics and real figures. This makes the essay look more credible and interesting to read. In addition, the ability of the student to compare the inequality in China and US makes the essay to be more credible because it is more expansive. One of the weaknesses of this essay is that it lacks credible sources. Therefore, the information given cannot be verified. In addition, the in-text citation does not follow any accepted standards. As a result, the essay cannot be used as a credible source of information for another research. Use of the first person in the essay is another major weakness in the essay. The student has used â€Å"I think† phrase in different parts of the essay. This is an indication that the student is not sure whether the information being provided is correct or not. In order for the information to be reliable, the student could have

Valuation of Biodiversity in Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Valuation of Biodiversity in Economics - Essay Example Genetic biodiversity associates with the level of inconsistency within the species. It involves the information signified by genes in the DNA of individual living things. Species diversity is concerned with a range of species.On ecosystem point of view, a low degree of ecosystem flexibility can lead to a sudden degrade in the biological output, which in turn cause a loss that cannot be reversed of roles for both the present and the expected generations. Functional diversity articulates a variety of roles produced by ecosystems, including the roles that support the life of ecosystem such as management of nature’s basic phases. Given these four levels of diversity, there are different perspectives in which the value of biodiversity can be understood. Some of these ways are instrumental and intrinsic values, the monetary and the biological indicators, the direct and the indirect values, biodiversity and the biological resources among others. The assigning value to biodiversity be gins from the hypothesis that social values are asserted on values of the individuals.When a person takes part in the conservation of the environment, he or she immediately discovers that it is sincerely an activity involving several disciplines. There are changes that have been experienced in the function and the significance of conservation. These changes are caused by the fast rise in environmental issues, and the realization that biological diversity is an important resource for the survival of human beings.

Values and Ethics in the workplace Research Paper

Values and Ethics in the workplace - Research Paper Example As such, this paper seeks to explore the significance of values and ethics in the workplace. The paper starts by explaining the meaning of these two interrelated concepts. The main body of the paper will attempt to illustrate how these concepts influence group behaviour as well as performance in an organization. Basically, values represent convictions that â€Å"a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence,† (Robbins, 1993, p.171). They contain a judgemental element in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right, good or desirable. On the other hand, values are described as the â€Å"essential and enduring tenets† that help define the company and are â€Å"not to be compromised for financial gain or short term expediency,† (DesJardins, 2006, p. 5). In simple terms, values are treated as beliefs that often incline businesses to act in certain ways in order to distinguish themselves from other organizations. It should be noted that values range from financial, religious as well as political factors among others. These shape the operations of business towards the attainment of its set goals. However, the concept of values goes hand in hand with the concept of ethics which is particularly concerned with serving the ends of human well being. It is generally believed that the concept of ethics mainly derive from the value system that exists among members of a certain group of people. This value system helps to distinguish one group from the other. This also helps to shape the policies of companies in different places. Ethics refers to values, principles and standards that operate within a certain business and these attempt to make a distinction between something that is morally good from bad (Rossouw, 2004). The concept of ethics is developed from the value system obtaining from a business set up. Therefore, it ca n be seen that these two concepts are somehow interrelated since they play a significant role in shaping the behaviour of the workers in their respective workplaces. Though they are not synonymous, they play a pivotal role in moulding the behaviour of the employees in a certain organization. Thus, in a bid to create a high performing culture in the workplace, values and ethics in the organization ought to be given special consideration since they are very important in shaping the behaviour of members belonging to that company. Carrel (1995) posits to the effect that values are a representation of a particular type of conduct that is preferred by the people belonging to a certain organization. This shapes the behaviour of people and it also helps them to make a distinction between something that is good from bad. Values also shape the perceptions possessed by employees in a given organization about different aspects that affect their lives. Since values are shared by all people withi n a given organization, it can be noted that they play a very important role in promoting group cohesion given that people belonging to that group will share a common understanding towards the goals and objectives of the organization. Emphasis in the organization will be based on the notion of collective identity where members of a particular group are identified as similar rather than focusing on individual interests. Therefore, it can be noted that these shared values in an organization influence the employees to pull their efforts towards the same direction and this can help the

Development of Prostitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Development of Prostitution - Essay Example s â€Å"profession† vary greatly among those involved, the most common of which relate to poverty and destitution, although according to an unnamed Google-sponsored informative website (2010), other reasons such as a desire for drugs and/or alcohol, also exist. Despite its controversial nature, it is sometimes pondered whether its legalization would do greater harm than good. Thus, this article aims to discuss the pros and cons if ever prostitution were to be legalized, and to come up with a stand. Asia, America, Europe, wherever one goes, a very much active sex industry is sure to exist. Most industrialized nations have cities with their own red-light district, complete with clubs with neon signs, where those interested can experience a close encounter of the carnal kind. But regardless of where it occurs, prostitution is an issue worthy of note. Where it started, why it goes on, and why anyone would be drawn to it in the first place are just some questions people ask pertaining to this subject. An article by Iris Hickenbottom (2002) states that this particular trade dates back to ancient Mesopotamia, emerging in Victorian-era America in the middle of the 19th century. Public perception of the sex industry and of prostitutes in general varied greatly within this period, ranging from understanding and sympathy to indifference and finally to flat, outright rejection. While they had hitherto been thought of as life-draining demons in human guise, early feminists instead viewed them as victims of a male-dominated society – a viewpoint which slowly but surely altered the status of women all over. The same site goes on to note Dr. William Sanger, whose research on the topic was highly regarded due to being both accurate and detailed. Among the most important things he discovered was the general profile of a prostitute: they were said to mostly be in their late teens or early adulthood, and usually came from a background of poverty and illiteracy. Since at the time,

Assignment Essay and Discussion Forum in Sociology Week 5

Assignment and Discussion Forum in Sociology Week 5 - Essay Example ed status and achieved status and very often the ascribed status of an individual is â€Å"conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individuals have little or no control, such as race, ethnicity, age and gender† (Kendall, p. 105). However, it is possible for an individual to acquire achieved statuses in one’s life with hard work, personal competence, personal choice and successful competition. There is a close link between ascribed statuses and achieved ones; therefore, it should also be kept in mind that factors such as race, ethnicity and gender are most likely to diminish one’s opportunity to reach higher realms of achieved statuses. It can therefore be concluded that people who are privileged by their positive ascribed status are more likely to develop positive achieved status whereas those who are disadvantaged by ascribed status tend to acquire negative achieved status (Kendall, p. 105). For a person who occupies different statuses, it is his master status that dominates over all others and determines his social position. According to Hughes (1945), a person’s master status â€Å"is the most important status a person occupies; it dominates all of the individual’s other statuses and is the overriding ingredient in determining a person’s general social position† (Kendall, p. 105). Factors such as a person’s race, ethnicity and religious identity can very often constitute the master statuses for individuals. In any society or community where racial discrimination, ethnic bias and religious prejudices prevails, the dominant group members tend to â€Å"single out members of other groups as â€Å"inferior† on the basis of real or alleged physical, cultural or nationality characteristics† (Kendall, p. 106). The social identities of ethnic minorities are most likely to be perceived based on their ethnicity or race. Factors su ch as a person’s race, ethnicity and religious identity constitute as the